About Cynomorium coccineum subsp. songaricum (Rupr.) J.Léonard
This subspecies of plant has no chlorophyll and cannot carry out photosynthesis. It is a geophyte that spends most of its life underground as a rhizome attached to the roots of a host plant, making it a holoparasite that is fully dependent on its host. A low-growing inflorescence emerges in spring, after winter rain, from a fleshy, unbranched stem — most of which stays underground — that bears scale-like, membranous leaves. The dark-red or purplish inflorescence forms a dense, erect, club-shaped mass 15 to 30 cm (5.9 to 11.8 in) long, made up of tiny scarlet flowers that can be male, female, or hermaphrodite. Flies pollinate this plant, drawn in by its sweet, slightly cabbage-like scent. After pollination, the inflorescence spike turns black. The plant produces a small, indehiscent nut as its fruit. In the Mediterranean region, Cynomorium parasitizes salt-tolerant plants from the Cistaceae (cistus) or Amaranthaceae (amaranth) families; in other regions, it parasitizes plants from Amaranthaceae and Tamaricaceae (tamarisk) families, and in China it parasitizes members of Nitrariaceae, especially Nitraria sibirica. Some other sources note that common host plants are saltbushes, which are Atriplex species in the Amaranthaceae family. DNA studies indicate that Cynomorium is not a member of the Balanophoraceae family, as was previously believed, and is more likely placed in the order Saxifragales, possibly related to the Crassulaceae (stonecrop) family. This taxonomic question is complicated by extensive horizontal gene transfer that occurs between Cynomorium and its various hosts. Cynomorium coccineum var. coccineum occurs from the Atlantic coastal desert of Mauritania and Western Sahara, through Morocco, the Canary Islands, southern Iberia (Portugal and Spain), the Balearic Islands, Algeria, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, southern Italy, Malta, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Iran and Afghanistan. Cynomorium coccineum var. songaricum, the taxon treated here, occurs in Central Asia and Mongolia, where it grows at high altitudes. Many authorities classify this taxon as a separate species, C. songaricum. In China, it is called "suoyang" (Chinese: 鎖陽) and is widely collected for use as a herbal remedy for conditions including sexual concerns and nocturnal emissions. Sir David Attenborough notes that under the reasoning of the Doctrine of Signatures, the phallic shape of the plant's inflorescence led early herbalists to believe Cynomorium could be used to treat erectile dysfunction and other sexual problems. The plant's dark color led to the belief it could treat anemia and other blood-related diseases. It has been used for similar purposes across both the eastern and western parts of its range: crusaders carried dried inflorescence spikes to help them recover from wounds. Other traditional uses include treatments for apoplexy, dysentery, sexually transmitted diseases, hypertension, vomiting, and irregular menstruation. The city of Kuyu 苦峪 was also known as Suoyang City, after the Chinese name for this plant, following a legend that 7th-century general Xue Rengui and his army survived a siege there by eating the plant. Much later, during the Yuan dynasty, it was introduced (or possibly imported) to China from Mongolia as a medicinal plant, and was first recorded by Zhū Dānxī (朱丹溪) in his 1347 work Supplement and Expansion of Materia Medica (Chinese: 本草衍義補遺; pinyin: Běncǎo Yǎnyì Bǔyí). It was an ingredient in his recipe for hidden tiger pills (Chinese: 虎潛丸; pinyin: hǔqián wán), used to treat impotence and weak legs. In the 16th century, the Knights of Malta valued the plant highly and sent samples of it to European royalty. They incorrectly identified the plant as a fungus, so it became known as "fungus melitensis", or "Maltese mushroom". The Knights guarded Fungus Rock, a large rock formation just off the coast of Gozo, whose flat top hosted abundant growth of the plant, very jealously. They even attempted to smooth the rock's outcrop sides to prevent theft of the plants, and theft was said to be punishable by death. The only access to the rock was via a precarious cable car, which was maintained into the early 19th century. Today the rock is a nature reserve, so access remains strictly limited. In the Middle Ages, Arabic physicians called the plant "tarthuth" and referred to it as "the treasure of drugs". An aqrabadhin (medical formulary) compiled by Al-Kindi in the 9th century lists tarthuth as an ingredient in a salve to relieve skin irritation; later, Rhazes (Al-Razi) recommended it to cure piles, nosebleeds, and dysfunctional uterine bleeding. In Saudi Arabia, an infusion made from ground, dried mature spike is used to treat colic and stomach ulcers. Bedouin people ate the plant during long journeys: they clean and peel fresh spikes and eat the crisp white interior, which is described as succulent and sweet, with an apple-like flavour and a mild astringent effect. Camels also readily eat the plant. It has often been used as a famine food, with the last reported use occurring in the 19th century in the Canary Islands. Additional recorded uses include use as a contraceptive, as a toothpaste, and to create a non-fading crimson fabric dye.
