About Capra ibex Linnaeus, 1758
The Alpine ibex, with the scientific name Capra ibex Linnaeus, 1758, is also commonly called the steinbock. It is a European goat species that resides in the Alps, one of ten species classified in the genus Capra, with the Iberian ibex as its closest living relative. This species is sexually dimorphic: males are larger than females and grow longer horns. Its coat is brownish-grey. Alpine ibexes typically inhabit steep, rough terrain and open alpine meadows, and can be found at elevations as high as 3,300 m (10,800 ft). Their sharp hooves let them climb the steep slopes and cliffs of their mountain habitat. They primarily eat grass and remain active year-round. Though they are social animals, adult males and females stay separated for most of the year, only gathering to mate. During the breeding season, males use their long horns to fight to gain access to females. Alpine ibexes have few natural predators, but are vulnerable to parasites and diseases. By the 19th century, the species had been extirpated from most of its original range and went through a population bottleneck with fewer than 100 individuals during its near-extinction event. This bottleneck resulted in very low genetic diversity across all modern populations. The species has since been successfully reintroduced to parts of its historical range, and all living individuals today descend from the original population found in Italy's Gran Paradiso National Park. As of 2020, the IUCN Red List classifies the Alpine ibex as a species of least concern. The Alpine ibex is native to the Alps of central Europe, with a current range covering France, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Italy, Germany, and Austria. Fossils of the species have been discovered as far south as Greece, where the species became locally extinct around 7,500 years ago due to human hunting. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, hunting eliminated the species from most of its range, leaving only one surviving population in and around Gran Paradiso, Italy by the 19th century. Since that time, the species has been reintroduced into parts of its former range, as well as new areas including Slovenia and Bulgaria. It is an excellent climber that occupies steep, rough terrain at elevations between 1,800 and 3,300 m (5,900 to 10,800 ft). It prefers open areas, but when snow cover is low and depending on population density, adult males may gather in larch and mixed larch-spruce woodland. Outside of the breeding season, males and females occupy separate habitats: females are more often found on steep slopes, while males prefer more level ground. In spring, males inhabit lowland meadows where fresh grass grows, and climb to alpine meadows during summer. In early winter, both sexes move to steep, rocky slopes to avoid deep snow accumulations. Alpine ibexes prefer slopes with a 30–45° incline, and take shelter in small caves and rock overhangs. The Alpine ibex is strictly herbivorous. Its diet is mostly made up of grass, which it prefers year-round. In summer, ibexes add herbs to their diet, while in autumn and winter they also eat dwarf shrubs and conifer shoots. The most commonly eaten grass genera are Agrostis, Avena, Calamagrostis, Festuca, Phleum, Poa, Sesleria, and Trisetum. In spring, individuals of both sexes spend roughly the same amount of time feeding each day. In summer, females — especially lactating females — spend more time feeding than males. Large adult males experience heat stress at high temperatures, which reduces their feeding time, but they can avoid this issue by feeding at night. In the original Gran Paradiso population, home ranges of Alpine ibex can exceed 700 ha (1,700 acres); in reintroduced populations, home ranges may reach close to 3,000 ha (7,400 acres). Home range size depends on resource availability and time of year: it is largest during summer and autumn, smallest in winter, and intermediate in spring. Females' home ranges are usually smaller than those of males. Alpine ibexes do not hibernate in winter; they shelter on cold winter nights and bask in sunlight in the mornings, and also reduce their heart rate and metabolism. The species may compete for resources with chamois and red deer, and the presence of these species can force Alpine ibexes to occupy higher elevations. The species' climbing ability is notable enough that it has been observed scaling the 57-degree slopes of the Cingino Dam in Piedmont, Italy, to lick mineral salts. Only lighter females and kids, which have shorter legs than adult males, climb this steep dam. Kids have been observed ascending 49 m (161 ft) along a zig-zag path, and descending along a straight path. The mating season for Alpine ibex starts in December and generally lasts around six weeks. During this period, male herds break up into smaller groups that search for females. The rut occurs in two phases: in the first phase, males interact with females as a group; in the second phase, one male separates from his group to follow a female that is in oestrus. Dominant males between nine and twelve years old follow a female and guard her from competing males. Subordinate younger males between two and six years old attempt to sneak past the guarding dominant male when he is distracted. If a female flees, both dominant and subordinate males will follow her. During courtship, the male stretches his neck, flicks his tongue, curls his upper lip, urinates, and sniffs the female. After copulation, the male returns to his group and restarts the first phase of the rut. Environmental conditions can impact courtship; for example, snow can limit males' ability to follow and mate with females. A female is in oestrus for around 20 days, and gestation averages around five months, usually resulting in the birth of one kid, and sometimes two. Females give birth away from their social groups on rocky slopes that are relatively safe from predators. After a few days, kids are able to move on their own. Mothers and kids gather into nursery groups, where young are nursed for up to five months. Nursery groups can also include non-lactating females. Alpine ibexes reach sexual maturity at 18 months old, but continue growing until females are five to six years old and males are nine to eleven years old. Their horns grow throughout the animals' entire lives. Newborns are born without horns; small horn tips become visible at one month old, and reach 20–25 mm (0.8–1.0 in) by the second month. In males, horns grow around 8 cm (3.1 in) per year for the first five and a half years. Once males reach 10 years of age, horn growth slows to half this rate. This slowing of horn growth in males corresponds with aging. The age of an Alpine ibex can be determined from the annual growth rings on its horns, which stop growing during winter.
