About Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, 1758), the common kingfisher, has the characteristic kingfisher body shape: short tail, stocky build, large head, and long bill. For the western European subspecies A. a. ispida, adult males have green-blue upperparts with a pale azure-blue back and rump, plus rufous patches at the base of the bill and on the ear. They also have a green-blue neck stripe, a white blaze on the neck and white throat, rufous underparts, a black bill with red coloring at the base, and bright red legs and feet. This subspecies measures approximately 16 cm (6+1⁄2 in) in length, has a 25 cm (10 in) wingspan, and weighs between 34–46 g (1+3⁄16–1+5⁄8 oz). Females are identical in appearance to males except their lower mandible is orange-red with a black tip. Juveniles resemble adults, but have duller, greener upperparts and paler underparts; their bill is black, and their legs are also initially black. Feather molt happens gradually between July and November, with main flight feathers taking 90–100 days to molt and regrow. Late-molting individuals may suspend molting during cold winter weather. The common kingfisher’s flight is fast, straight, and typically low over water. Its short, rounded wings beat rapidly, and a bird flying away shows an electric-blue flash along its back. In North Africa, Europe, and Asia north of the Himalayas, it is the only small blue kingfisher. In south and southeast Asia, it can be confused with six other small blue-and-rufous kingfishers, but its rufous ear patches separate it from all species except juvenile blue-eared kingfishers; where both species occur, close examination of head patterning is needed to tell them apart. The common kingfisher does not have a song. Its flight call is a short, sharp whistle, chee, repeated two or three times. Anxious birds make a harsh shrit-it-it call, and nestlings beg for food with a churring noise. There are seven recognized subspecies, which differ in the hue of their upperparts, the intensity of rufous coloring on their underparts, and have up to 10% size variation across subspecies. Subspecies that live permanently south of the Wallace Line have the bluest upperparts and partly blue ear-patches. The subspecies are: A. a. ispida Linnaeus, 1758, which breeds from Ireland, Spain, and southern Norway to Romania and western Russia, and winters south to Iraq and southern Portugal; A. a. atthis, which breeds from northwestern Africa and southern Italy east to Afghanistan, the Kashmir region, northern Xinjiang, and Siberia, and is a winter visitor south to Israel, northeastern Sudan, Yemen, Oman, and Pakistan, and compared to A. a. ispida it has a greener crown, paler underparts, and is slightly larger; A. a. bengalensis Gmelin, 1788, which breeds in southern and eastern Asia from India to Indonesia, China, Korea, Japan, and eastern Mongolia, winters south to Indonesia and the Philippines, and is smaller and brighter than European races; A. a. taprobana Kleinschmidt, 1894, a resident breeder in Sri Lanka and southern India, with bright blue rather than green-blue upperparts and the same size as A. a. bengalensis; A. a. floresiana Sharpe, 1892, a resident breeder from Bali to Timor, which matches A. a. taprobana but has darker blue coloring and a rufous ear-patch with a few blue feathers; A. a. hispidoides Lesson, 1837, a resident breeder from Sulawesi to New Guinea and the islands of the western Pacific Ocean, with deeper plumage colors than A. a. floresiana, purple-tinged blue on the hind neck and rump, and a blue ear-patch; A. a. solomonensis Rothschild and Hartert, 1905, a resident breeder in the Solomon Islands east to San Cristobal, which is the largest southeast Asian subspecies, has a blue ear-patch, is more purple-tinged than A. a. hispidoides, and interbreeds with that subspecies. The common kingfisher is widely distributed across Europe, Asia, and North Africa, mainly south of 60°N. It is a common breeding species across most of its large Eurasian range, but in North Africa it is mainly a winter visitor, though it is a scarce breeding resident in coastal Morocco and Tunisia. In temperate regions, this kingfisher lives in clear, slow-flowing streams and rivers, and lakes with well-vegetated banks. It frequents scrub and bushes with overhanging branches near shallow open water where it hunts. In winter, it is found more often on the coast, often feeding in estuaries or harbors, and along rocky seashores. Tropical populations are found along slow-flowing rivers, in mangrove creeks, and in swamps, such as those in Bangladesh. Common kingfishers are important members of ecosystems and good indicators of freshwater community health. The highest densities of breeding birds occur in habitats with clear water, which allows the best visibility for catching prey, plus trees or shrubs along the banks. These habitats also have the highest water quality, so the presence of this bird confirms good water quality. Projects to modify water flow can disrupt this habitat, and in particular, replacing natural banks with artificial barriers greatly reduces populations of fish, amphibians, and aquatic reptiles, leading to loss of waterside bird populations including the common kingfisher. The species can tolerate a moderate level of urbanization, as long as the water remains clean. This species stays year-round in areas with mild year-round climates, but must migrate after breeding from regions that experience prolonged freezing conditions in winter. Most birds winter within the southern parts of the breeding range, but smaller numbers cross the Mediterranean into Africa or travel over the mountains of Malaysia into Southeast Asia. Kingfishers migrate mainly at night, and some Siberian breeding populations must travel at least 3,000 km (1,900 mi) between their breeding sites and wintering areas.
